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While Istanbul

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slept in the early hours of April 27,

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1909,

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Sultan Abdul Hamid II boarded a westbound train.

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Under cover of darkness,

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he left the imperial capital,

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bringing an end to his reign.

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For almost six centuries,

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his family had ruled the Ottoman Empire,

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spanning regions in North Africa,

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southeastern Europe,

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and the Middle East.

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But the end of this powerful dynasty had been brewing for

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years.

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In the late 18th century,

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the Ottomans' once feared faction of elite warriors,

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called the Janissaries,

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had become inefficient and greedy.

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Their numbers swelled with poorly trained fighters,

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and their outdated weapons led to a series of embarrassing

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defeats that coincided with several economic crises.

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To survive,

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Sultan Selim III sought to curb the Janissary's

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influence and modernize the empire with widespread reforms.

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The warriors rebelled and assassinated Selim,

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but his successor would not be so easily beaten.

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Mahmoud II subdued their revolt in a massacre known

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as the Auspicious Event.

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and swiftly replaced the outmoded warriors with a European

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-style army.

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This was one of many far -reaching efforts to modernize the empire,

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which were continued by Mahmud's successor.

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Sultan Abdul -Majid ushered in an era of reforms

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known as the Tazimat,

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or reordering,

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where economic and administrative systems were overhauled,

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and subjects from all backgrounds were recruited to work for the government.

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The Tazimat was hindered by foreign debt and political

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upheavals.

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But perhaps the era's biggest challenge was the dynasty's initiative

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to unite their diverse subjects.

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The Ottoman Empire spanned three continents containing

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numerous religious and ethnic groups,

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including Arabs,

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Turks,

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Kurds,

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Greeks,

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Armenians,

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Jews,

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and more.

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These minority groups were free to choose their language,

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religion,

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and cultural practices,

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yet most of them were deprived the full rights of Muslim

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citizens.

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They had to pay extra taxes and were prevented from participating

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in serving in the military.

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By the mid -19th century,

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this divide was met with pressure from inside and outside

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the empire for reform.

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So Ottoman leaders tried to resolve it by introducing

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an all -inclusive Ottoman national identity.

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This reform signaled a drastic societal shift and

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emphasized legal equality for all subjects alongside

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new laws concerning citizenship,

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property,

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and taxation.

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The newly accorded privileges and reforms were

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sometimes met with resistance by some members of the ruling classes.

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Many minority groups formed separatist movements,

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and European empires,

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including Russia,

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France,

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and Britain,

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further undermined attempts at unity by fueling

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ethno -nationalist sentiments.

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This discord contributed to the empire losing territories

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in North Africa and the Balkans,

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where large -scale ethnic cleansing of local Muslims often

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followed.

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and efforts to promote pan -Ottoman identity in the remaining provinces

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were met with lukewarm success,

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especially after Sultan Abdul Hamid II took

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the throne.

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While Abdul Hamid shared his predecessor's interest

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in modernizing reforms,

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extensive building projects,

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and expanding education,

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he also ruled as an absolute monarch.

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During his reign,

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he suspended the constitution and supported widespread censorship.

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Political oppression and violence became regular tools

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of the state,

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including anti -Armenian massacres in Anatolia

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that came to be known as the Hamidian massacres.

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In 1908,

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a coup by army officers known as the Young Turk Revolution

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curtailed his power and restored the constitution.

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But while his successor Mehmed V took the throne,

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the Young Turks' political party took hold of the power.

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The Committee for Union and Progress encouraged democratic

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reforms.

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However,

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they also pushed for a new brand of Ottoman nationalism

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centered on Turkish identity.

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This change further alienated non -Turkish Ottomans,

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adding fuel to numerous opposition movements.

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Yet just as this political infighting was heating up,

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European powers initiated an even larger conflict.

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At the dawn of World War I,

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the CUP -controlled government sided with their longtime

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allies in Germany.

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But following early victories,

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the war turned disastrous.

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The Ottomans suffered severe losses and the highest number

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of deaths per capita in any warring nation.

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All the while,

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Brits and Russians were supporting the empire's anti

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-Ottoman movements,

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including several Armenian organizations.

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In 1915,

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the CUP responded by issuing the Temporary Law

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of Deportation,

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effectively authorizing the ethnic cleansing of the

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Armenian population.

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This policy was carried out with such brutality

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that an estimated 1 million Armenians perished in what

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is now known as the Armenian Genocide.

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By the end of 1918,

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World War I was over.

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The Ottoman side had lost,

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and the victors began hastily carving up what remained of

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the empire into new nation states that suited their interests.

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The British promised some ruling families what

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would become Saudi Arabia,

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Iraq,

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and Jordan.

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The remaining Arab -majority territories were split into Syria,

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Lebanon,

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and Palestine,

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all of which were divided between the French and British.

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The Allies had further plans for Istanbul and Anatolia,

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but the Turkish War of Independence forced a renegotiation.

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Eventually,

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this led to the creation of the Independent Republic of Turkey in

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1923 and the formal end to over six centuries

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of Ottoman rule.

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